1. komponenta

Lecture type	Total
Lectures	30
Practicum	30

* Load is given in academic hour (1 academic hour = 45 minutes)

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The aim of the Cell biology course is to acquire basic knowledge about the structure and the functioning of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and their role in the life of different organisms, preservation of hereditary information, as well as the application of appropriate tools and methodologies, teaching tools and aids for studying the structure and functions of different cell types.

COURSE CONTENT:
LECTURES
1) Introduction: Presentation of the course and the teaching staff, a detailed plan of lectures, lab lessons and evaluations. The topic starts with a conversation about the origin of the Universe, and the Solar system. After the creation of Earth, did the RNA molecules or metabolism on hot rocks in the sea come first? As a model, we use RNA molecules and we start a story of first RNA and DNA in the cell. Methods of research in cell biology: we talk about history of microscopy and who were main researchers of cells and organisms. Modern light microscope is presented, with physical properties to have sample's real picture, other than that, we speak about phase-contrast, fluorescent and types of electron microscopes;
2) The plan of cell organisation: German biologists proposed cell theory in 1838. The division of cells prokaryotes (before nucleus), morphology, activity and fusion. The origin of the eukaryotic cell (with nucleus), morphology, activity and merging. The differences between prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells, and genetic information. Taxonomic division according to species and RNA. The cells are model organisms in research;
3) Biomembrane: Function of biomembrane, chemical composition, and building structure of biomembranes. Biomembrane lipids and fluids of membrane, proteins and carbohydrates in membrane. Passage through membrane. Experimental ways to study biomembrane;
4) DNA, RNA and proteins, briefly how they occur? Mitochondria: Organisation and functioning; inner membrane and its role in transforming the energy (oxidative phosphorylation); biogenesis and evolution of plastids and mitochondria; endosymbiotic theory; genome of mitochondria. Introduction to the cellular respiration - from sugar to the energy in the form of ATP;
5) Plastids and chloroplast - their function, changes from one form to another. Evolutionary how it came that cell may have plastids, change in DNA and how proteins arrive to plastids. Biochemical structure and photosynthesis in chloroplast. Difference in photosynthesis in C3 and C4 plants;
6) Endoplasmic system and transport: explanation of system of membranes that are in the cell, associated with the nucleus. Transport of the membranes from endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi apparatus, structure of Golgi apparatus. "Life" of membrane in the cell and out of the cell, with proteins that help during the transport. Cellular stomach - lysosome and vacuole: organisation and function; excretion of proteins from cell; constitutive and regulated secretion; glycosylation of proteins; peroxisomes - the origin and its biochemistry;
7) Cytoskeleton: proteins that make the cell tough but also agile. Three main types of proteins: microtubules, actin and intermediate fibres. Their structures and main roles in the cell, diseases that appear with mutations and parts of proteins;
8) Signal transmission path; Paths of signals of hormones; Stages of signal transmission from membrane receptors to the target molecule. Communication of cells that are next to each other;
9) Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Organization of the nucleus. Function of the nucleus (the control center of the cell - with an example of Hammerling's experiment). Components of the nucleus - nuclear envelope (membranes, nuclear pore complexes, transport of molecules through the nuclear envelope), nuclear lamina (composition and function), chromatin (levels of chromatin condensation and epigenetic mechanisms), and nucleolus (formation of rRNA molecules and ribosomal subunits);
10) Cell cycle of prokaryotes. Cell cycle of eukaryotes (G1, S, G2 and M phase). Mitosis - explanation of prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Explanation of the mitotic spindle throughout the phases of mitosis;
11) Cell cycle control. Checkpoints in yeast and animal cells. Checkpoints in the G1, G2, and M phase. Cell cycle regulators;
12) Karyotype and examples of different karyotypes. Meiosis I - explanation of all phases. Crossing over. Meiosis II - explanation of all phases. Differences between mitosis and meiosis. Gametogenesis in humans;
13) Endocycle - endomitosis and endoreduplication (polytene chromosomes as an example). C-mitosis. Lampbrush chromosomes.

EXERCISES
The exercises that will take place within the course will be based on microscopy and biochemical procedures.
1) Microscopy: explanation how a microscope looks and how to handle it, optical principles. Samples: leaves of water plants Canadian waterweed, grains of potato starch and onion bulb cells;
2) Plan of cellular structure and basic organizational types of cells: Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells - samples: bacteria, algae Chlorella sp., plants Zebrina pendula or Rhoeo discolor and cells from the buccal mucosa. The task is to draw different cells;
3) Biomembranes - indirect observations, osmometer: the task is to see membranes of plant cells that have coloured vacuole. Preparation of the sugar solutions from 0.0 - 1.0 M. By soaking the cells in solutions with increasing sugar concentrations, as the time goes, the cell loses water. The cells should be drawn when water loss begins and when it ends. Next is the X concentration of sugar and samples. Students must decide what is that "X" concentration;
4) Plastids: different plants are observed - the top of the plant Canadian waterweed for proplastids, different plastids in cells, thin slices of petals. Make thin slices of yellow or red pepper and carrot root, etc.;
5) Chloroplasts isolation: Spinach leaves are taken, cut into small pieces and a buffer is added. A part is taken and cell fractionation and centrifugation are done. Resuspend the precipitate in a small volume of buffer, stain and observe under a stronger microscope under UV-rays;
6) Tissue sectioning, staining and microscopy: the goal is to introduce students how to prepare the sample for the electron microscope (EM). The samples are from horseradish, coloured and examined under a light microscope. After that real electron microscopes are shown to students and they are explained how EM really works;
7) Nucleus, mitosis: Samples are young onion roots, incubated in acetocarmine. Students try to find all parts of mitosis in the sample, count them and draw some of the parts of it;
8) Endomitosis, polytene chromosomes and C-mitosis: For endomitosis samples of giant chromosomes are taken from the cells of the salivary gland of the fruit flies. Find the chromosomes and draw them. To observe C-mitosis, young onion roots has to be treated with solution of colchicine. Roots are further treated like mitosis, and draw C-mitosis;
9) Meiosis I: prepare samples from Allium ursinum (2n = 16), microscopy and search for the main parts of meiosis I and II;
10) Meiosis II: Practise tasks regarding crossing-over and genetic recombination in meiosis;
11) Isolation of cell nucleus and separation of DNA: samples are from onion leaves or sugar beet (2-3 leaves). Isolate cell nucleus on microscope glass, and incubate for UV-light. DNA molecules are observed on UV-microscope.

1. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th Ed.), 1. B. Alberts, A. Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts, P. Walter, Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th Ed., Garland Publishing, New York, 2002. i novija izdanja) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/, B. Alberts, A. Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts, P. Walter, Garland Publishing, New York, 2002.
2. The Cell - A Molecular Approach (2nd Ed.), 2. Cooper, G. M., The Cell - A Molecular Approach (2nd Ed., Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, 2000.), G. M. Cooper, Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, 2000.
3. Stanica, molekularni pristup, 3. Lauc, G. (stručni urednik hrvatskog izdanja), Stanica, molekularni pristup, (Medicinska naklada, Zagreb, 2004.), G. Lauc, Medicinska naklada, Zagreb, 2004.
4. Praktikum iz biologije stanice, Skripta za studente biologije, 4. M. Krsnik-Rasol, V. Besendorfer, B. Balen, P. Peharec Štefanić, D. Pavoković, P. Cvjetko, Praktikum iz biologije stanice, Skripta za studente biologije (Prirodoslovno-matematički fakultet, Zagreb, 2020.), M. Krsnik-Rasol, V. Besendorfer, B. Balen, P. Peharec Štefanić, D. Pavoković, P. Cvjetko, Prirodoslovno-matematički fakultet, Zagreb, 2020.

Mandatory course - Regular study - Biology and Chemistry Education